Designing+Content

// Designing Content //

//Objective: Design effective, research-based content that propels the learner toward the established learning goals//

// Steps for Effective Content Design // An integral part of Instructional Design focuses on content. The effective Instructional Designer realizes that instruction does not equate learning, so he conducts assessments and frequently confirms his data, objectives, and plans with the client in order to combine the learner with the content in a carefully prepared environment. To prepare the most effective content and learning environment, the Instructional Designer follows these steps: 1. discusses overall goals with client; 2. conducts needs assessments (see Learner Needs page) to pinpoint the gap between the ideal and the actual skills and knowledge; this step includes acquiring data pertaining to learners' prior knowledge and motivation ; 3. lists objectives using specific behavioral verbs that can be readily observed and assessed; 4. confirms these objectives with the client; 5. accesses appropriate content and chunk the content into logical, sequential units; this step involves the consideration of learning theories ; this step generally leads to application of the content knowledge; 6. plans formative and summative assessments that are closely aligned with objectives and aid in monitoring progress ; 7. plans activities or learning events 8. devises, acquires, lists appropriate materials that enhance content; 9. synthesizes components of plan and evaluates with the client.

// Annotated Glossary of Terms // " Linking to prior knowledge" Alexander (2006) purports that a learner's mental history is as unique as a fingerprint (p. 73). Since prior knowle​dge serves as a filter through which all subsequent knowledge is perceived and understood (p. 73), assessing prior knowledge becomes an essential component of instructional design. The three states of prior knowledge are declarative, procedural, and conditional. Instructional designers should determine declarative knowledge among learners so that he can clarify terms and basic processes before proceeding further. Even though learners may have minimal declarative prior knowledge, they may have just enough to impede further learning. Procedural prior knowledge encompasses the "hows" of understanding; learners perform certain productions as if they are following a "script." Many feel that classrooms should present more procedural knowledge in the classroom by using "a variety of instructional techniques that emphasize procedures and actions" such as problem-based learning (p. 77). Conditional prior knowledge involves when, where, and why knowledge should be accessed (p. 78). All forms of prior knowledge can enhance or hinder current learning. Because prior knowledge can be either tacit or explicit, probing to discover prior knowledge may be greatly beneficial to instructional designer, instructor, and learner. Malcolm Gladwell's book //Outliers: The Story of Success (2008, New York: Little, Brown//) provides numerous, convincing examples that illustrate how tacit knowledge can greatly shape behaviors. Once an Instructional Designer has assessed learners' prior knowledge pertaining to the specific goals and objectives, he can then work to refine former prior knowledge that may obstruct current instruction, and/or he can use prior knowledge as a starting point and link for new knowledge. Top

"Motivation" Because "motivations underlie every human action" (Alexander, p. 192), Instructional Designers should attempt to assess and address the learners' motives. Motivation serves to fuel the learner toward the goal, so unless the motivation is internal to the learner, the instructor may have a more difficult time working with the learners. Understanding motivation can help a designer and/or instructor to prepare the learner for optimal learning. Recognizing and addressing simple things like a learner's need for safety, food, rest, and variety may greatly increase a learner's chances of meeting the objectives. Abraham Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs chart that illustrates basic needs and what motivates people to change.

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" Content Knowledge" consists of "concepts, ideas, policies, and information that comprise a training program" (Piskurich, 2000, p. 253). Determining clear objectives enables the designer to know which content is "need to know" and which is "nice to know" (p. 85). Assessing learners' prior knowledge is essential to establishing where to begin presenting content knowledge. An important aspect of content knowledge involves allowing the learner to provide feedback about the content and delivery of the intended knowledge. When the designer is presenting the instructional plan to the client, he should provide a clear statement of what the instruction will address, and all of the content should be clearly connected to objectives and tasks (p. 104). The designer should always be assessing the meaningfulness of the content for the learner. A design team may include a subject matter expert (SME) (p. 5) who can serve as a consultant when selecting appropriate content knowledge. Top

" Chunking" describes the grouping of similar information and objectives into smaller units (Piskurich, 2000, p. 85). Learners can generally handle smaller amounts of information as opposed to larger amounts. Good instructors provide these smaller, logically grouped units. The instructor should consider the learning context, learner characteristics, and time constraints when chunking information (p. 125). Chunking of information may also contribute to the learners' seeing the logical sequence of the information or process. // Top

"Sequencing Events" Once initial learning objectives have been established and confirmed with the client, then the designer must determine the best order to present these objectives to the learner for optimal learning and mastery (Glatthorn, Boschee & Whitehead, 2006, 202). Top

" Learning Theory " "describes the learning process" (Reigeluth & Carr-Chellman, 1999, p. 10) and may help teachers to understand how instruction combines with learners' assimilation processes to effect learning (p. 11). Learning theory encompasses the what, when, why, and how of learning. A designer's and an instructor's theories of learning impact the way content information is presented, which activities and materials are presented, and how a learner is assessed. Three broad learning theories are summarized as follows:

Also see [|Learning Models] for fuller descriptions of learning theory terms (Ryder). Top "Application" is the using of knowledge or skills. M. David Merrill's in Reigeluth (1999) states that when learners use their knowledge and or skills, they are involved in application (p. 47). Application varies from practice, which primarily involved remembering. Application, by contrast, is more demanding because it includes classifying, carrying out a new procedure, predicting, and determining "faulted conditions" in a new situation (p. 47). Piskurich (2000) claims that application of knowledge is the ultimate goal. When considering application, carefully describing the learners' observable behaviors with concise language is important so that both the designer, client, instructor, and learner are clear about what the learner is supposed to be able to do ( p. 91). Incorporating concise "performance verbs" into the stated objectives can guide learners more quickly toward application of acquired skills (p. 91).
 * 1) "Cognitivism" focuses on mental activity. The Swiss Psychologist Jean Piaget proposed that learning is determined both by heredity and environment (Alexander, 2006, p. 38), or by both nature and nurture, so to speak.
 * 2) "Behaviorism" focuses on observable behaviors and "human actions," rather than on "knowledge" or "knowing." Behaviorists believe that behaviors can be "conditioned through the systematic and effective use of reinforces and punishments" (Alexander,2006, p. 67). Behaviorists would carefully choose meaningful activities, rewards, and punishments for their learners. Behaviors can be trained.
 * 3) "Constructivism" proposes that knowledge is "created, or constructed, by individuals and is not simply acquired" (Alexander, 2006, p. 68). Cognitivists stress the social nature of learning. Also, because the brain develops with age and experience, different learners necessarily have different capacities to learn and to integrate knowledge. Cognitivists consider age-appropriate materials and learners' prior knowledge . They would also probably have learners working in groups.

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" Evaluation"  helps the educational process better relate to individual learners" (Glatthorn, Boschee & Whitehead, 2006, p. 301). Meaningful evaluation uses both formative and summative assessments. Assessing and evaluating learners' progress is essential for effective instruction and learning. Instructors use diagnostics evaluations to determine strengths, weaknesses, and skills of learners . Knowing learners' characteristics enables the designer to plan more meaningful instruction. Included in diagnostic evaluation is placement evaluation, which is used to place learners in the best learning environment. Formative evaluations occur throughout the learning process and provide information that instructors can use to modify their materials to the learners. Instructors conduct summative evaluations at the end of a unit of study to determine how closely the learners met the objectives (Alexander, 2006, pp. 299-200). The summative evaluation must be closely linked to the objectives in order for the evaluation to be fair, consistent, and meaningful. As an Instructional Designer begins to assess the learners, he can perform diagnostic and/or placement evaluations to determine the prior knowledge, skills, and learning styles, so that content , materials , activities , and environment are carefully considered and chosen to optimize the learning experience. Top

"Monitoring Progress" by using formative assessments allow instructors to gather and evaluate data that they can use to modify ongoing instruction. Assessments are generally "informal" and include methods such as observation, questioning, and teacher-made tests (Alexander, 2006, p. 299). Instructors unaccustomed to using formative evaluations can access checklists that correlate to objectives. Instructional designers can include these formative assessments in the materials portion of their presentation package. Top

" Materials" describe what instructors and learners use to enable and enhance learning. Designers must plan for and estimate the cost of materials in an instructional design plan. The primary consideration is if the media and materials are appropriate for the learner and the context. All materials should be carefully designed and linked to objectives. If designers include print materials, then these materials should be well designed and developed. For instance, Piskurich (2000) recommends including such aspects as a table of contents, page numbers, adequate white space, shorter paragraphs, active voice, clear explanations, and consistent formatting that includes readable font and point size (p. 173). He also warns against using stereotypes, redundancies, and undefined acronyms and jargon (p. 173). Extensive guidelines are available for preparing most types of materials. Overheads should be colorful and easy to read; certain colors elicit certain responses, so colors should be chosen wisely rather than randomly (p. 176). Materials can also include activites such as puzzles, role playing, prizes, lists of physical activities for breaks, evaluation papers and writing utensils, flip charts, books, drawings, task lists, worksheets, literature review, etc. Including a list of materials should be a part of every lesson (p. 173) so that once the lesson begins, the needed materials are ready and available.

http://www.hotfrog.com/Uploads/PressReleases/Teaching-Materials-for-elementary-school-teachers-English-teaching-and-learning-materials-Teaching-27252_image.jpg Top " Activities" describe what the learner does and are considered to be prescriptive. They are closely linked to learning objectives and "help the learner to master the objective" by moving him closer to the objective "step by step" (Glatthorn, Boschee & Whitehead, 2006, p. 202). Top

"Synthesis and Evaluation" is the consideration of the Instructional Design plan as a whole. In the process of developing instruction, different designers may work on different parts of the plan. However, the parts have to be considered together and evaluated as a total package to judge overall effectiveness and alignment with objectives. Top

References Alexander, P. A. (2006). // Psychology of learning and instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Glatthorn, A., Boschee, F., & Whitehead, B. (2006) . //Curriculum leadership: Development and implementation.//  Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Piskurich, G. M. (2000). //Rapid instructional design: Learning ID fast and right//. Jossey-Bass. Reigeluth, C. M. (Ed.). (1999) . //Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory//  (Volume I). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.

Ryder, M. (n.d.). //Instructional design models//. Retrieved on March 6, 2010, from []

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